Pregnancy monitoring and parturition in dogs
Keywords:
Canine pregnancy, whelping, cesarean surgery, dystocia, neonate
Abstract
Management of term pregnant dogs is a major and frequent clinical situation in small animal reproductive veterinary practices, and can be challenging. Whether a pregnancy is planned or unplanned, these cases require careful monitoring to prevent maternal distress and neonatal loss. Reproductive system evaluation of female dogs is useful for determination of ovulation during breeding management, pregnancy diagnosis, and for timing of cesarean surgery, among other clinical scenarios. Basic understanding of female dog’s reproductive physiology is mandatory to interpret relevant hormonal assays and other complementary diagnostics such as vaginal cytological evaluation and imaging (ultrasonography and radiography) for clinical decisions. This review covers physiology, diagnostics, and clinical outcomes relevant for pregnancy monitoring and parturition.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
1. Da Costa REP, Kinsman RH, Owczarczak-Garstecka SC, et al: Age of sexual maturity and factors associated with neutering dogs in the UK and the Republic of Ireland. Vet Rec 2022;191:1–11. doi: 10.1002/vetr.1265
2. Concannon PW, Castracane VD, Temple M, et al: Endocrine control of ovarian function in dogs and other carnivores. Anim Reprod 2009;6:172-193.
3. Kowalewski MP: Regulation of corpus luteum function in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) and comparative aspects of luteal function the domestic cat (Felis catus). In: Meidan R: editor. The Life Cycle of the Corpus Luteum. New York City; Springer: 2017. p. 133-157. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-43238-0_8
4. Wildt D, Chakraborty P, Panko W, et al: Relationship of reproductive behavior, serum luteinizing hormone and time of ovulation in the bitch. Biol Reprod 1978;18:561-570. doi: 10.1095/biolreprod18.4.561
5. De Gier J, Kooistra HS, Djajadiningrat-Laanen SC, et al: Temporal relations between plasma concentrations of luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, estradiol-17β, progesterone, prolactin, and α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone during the follicular, ovulatory, and early luteal phase in the bitch. Theriogenology 2006;65:1346-1359. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2005.08.010
6. Reckers F, Klopfleisch R, Belik V, et al: Canine vaginal cytology: a revised definition of exfoliated vaginal cells. Front Vet Sci 2022;9:1-10. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.834031
7. Reynaud K, Fontbonne A, Marseloo N, et al: In vivo meiotic resumption, fertilization and early embryonic development in the bitch. Reproduction 2005;130:193-201. doi: 10.1530/rep.1.00500
8. Tsutsui T: Gamete physiology and timing of ovulation and fertilization in dogs. J Reprod Fertil 1989;39:269-725.
9. Rijsselaere T, England G, Freeman S, et al: Current knowledge on the transport and fate of spermatozoa in the reproductive tract of the bitch. Reprod Domest Anim 2014;49:2-7. doi: 10.1111/rda.12299
10. Kowalewski MP, Tavares Pereira M, Kazemian A: Canine conceptus-maternal communication during maintenance and termination of pregnancy, including the role of species-specific decidualization. Theriogenology 2020;150:329-338. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2020.01.082
11. Lopate C: Estimation of gestational age and assessment of canine fetal maturation using radiology and ultrasonography: a review. Theriogenology 2008;70:397-402. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2008.05.034
12. Hoffmann R. Höveler B, Nohr SHH: Investigations on hormonal changes around parturition in the dog and the occurrence of pregnancy-specific non conjugated oestrogens. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 1994;102:185-189. doi: 10.1055/s-0029-1211280
13. Nishiyama T, Tsumagari S, Ito M, et al: Immunohistochemical study of steroidogenic enzymes in the ovary and placenta during pregnancy in the dog. Anat Histol Embryol 1999;28:125-130. doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0264.1999.00170.x
14. Kooistra HS, Okkens AC: Secretion of prolactin and growth hormone in relation to ovarian activity in the dog. Reprod Domest Anim 2001;36:115-119. doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0531.2001.d01-42.x
15. Fusi J, Veronesi MC: Canine parturition: what is known about the hormonal setting? Domest Anim Endocrinol 2022;78:106687. doi: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2021.106687
16. Kowaleski MP, Beceriklisoy HB, Pfarrer C, et al: Canine placenta: a source of prepartal prostaglandins during normal and antiprogestin-induced parturition. Reproduction 2010;139:655-664. doi: 10.1530/REP-09-0140
17. Nowak M, Rehrauer H, Ay SS, et al: Gene expression profiling of the canine placenta during normal and antigestagen-induced luteolysis. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2019;282:113194. doi: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2019.05.019
18. Copley K: 26,000 whelpings-the high points and high risk successes. Clinical Theriogenology 2017;9:277-288.
19. Milani C, Rota A, Olsson U, et al: Serum concentration of mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex steroids in peripartum bitches. Domest Anim Endocrinol 2021;74:106558. doi: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2020.106558
20. Johnston S, Root Kustritz M, Olson P: Canine parturition – eutocia and dystocia. In: Canine and Feline Theriogenology. 1st edition, Philadelphia; Saunders: 2001. p. 105-126.
21. Concannon PW: Canine pregnancy: predicting parturition and timing events of gestation. Research Gate 2000; p. 4-8. Retrieved from chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj.https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Patrick-Concannon-2/publication/237260118_Canine_Pregnancy_Predicting_Parturition_and_Timing_Events_of_Gestation/links/00b4952f6456c8be7e000000/Canine-Pregnancy-Predicting-Parturition-and-Timing-Events-of-Gestation.pdf.
22. Eilts BE, Davidson AP, Hosgood G, et al: Factors affecting gestation duration in the bitch. Theriogenology 2005;64:242-51. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2004.11.007
23. Okkens AC, Hekerman TW, de Vogel JW, et al: Influence of litter size and breed on variation in length of gestation in the dog. Vet Q 1993;15:160-161. doi: 10.1080/01652176.1993.9694397
24. Lopate C: Ultrasonography for the evaluation of pregnancy in the female canine. Reprod Domest Anim 2023;58:144-162. doi: 10.1111/rda.14446
25. Hollinshead F, Hanlon D: Normal progesterone profiles during estrus in the bitch: a prospective analysis of 1420 estrous cycles. Theriogenology 2019;125:37-42. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2018.10.018
26. Wright P: Application of vaginal cytology and plasma progesterone determinations to the management of reproduction in the bitch. J Small Anim Pract 1990;31:335-340. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-5827.1990.tb00824.x
27. Conley AJ, Gonzales KL, Erb HN, et al: Progesterone analysis in canine breeding management. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2023;53:931-949. doi: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2023.05.007
28. Goodman M: Ovulation timing. Concepts and controversies. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2001;31:219-235. doi: 10.1016/S0195-5616(01)50201-6
29. Lopate C: Gestational aging and determination of parturition date in the bitch and queen using ultrasonography and radiography. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2018;48:617-638. doi: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2018.02.008
30. Hase M, Hori T, Kawakami E, et al: Plasma LH and progesterone levels before and after ovulation and observation of ovarian follicles by ultrasonographic diagnosis system in dogs. J Vet Med Sci 2000;62:243-248. doi: 10.1292/jvms.62.243
31. Bergeron LH, Nykamp SG, Brisson BA, et al: An evaluation of B-mode and color Doppler ultrasonography for detecting periovulatory events in the bitch. Theriogenology 2013;79:274-283. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2012.08.016
32. Tsuchida M, Komura N, Yoshihara T, et al: Ultrasonographic observation in combination with progesterone monitoring for detection of ovulation in Labrador Retrievers. Reprod Domest Anim 2022;57:149-156. doi: 10.1111/rda.14035
33. Socha P, Janowski T, Bancerz-Kisiel A: Ultrasonographic fetometry formulas of inner chorionic cavity diameter and biparietal diameter for medium-sized dogs can be used in giant breeds. Theriogenology 2015;84:779-783. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.05.012
34. Gil EMU, Garcia DAA, Giannico AT, et al: Early results on canine fetal kidney development: ultrasonographic evaluation and value in prediction of delivery time. Theriogenology 2018;107:180-187. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2017.11.015
35. Siena G, di Nardo F, Romagnoli S, et al: Relationship between days before parturition and fetal kidney length, cortical thickness, medullary thickness and their ratio in dogs. Theriogenology 2022;194:58-63. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2022.09.021
36. Siena G, Romagnoli S, Drigo M, et al: Ultrasonographic changes in fetal gastrointestinal motility during the last ten days before parturition in dogs. Front Vet Sci 2022;9:1–9. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1000975
37. Gil EMU, Garcia DAA, Froes TR: In utero development of the fetal intestine: sonographic evaluation and correlation with gestational age and fetal maturity in dogs. Theriogenology 2015;84:681-686. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.04.030
38. Sotiriadis A, Mcgoldrick E, Makrydimas G, et al: Antenatal corticosteroids prior to planned caesarean at term for improving neonatal outcomes (Review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2021; 12(12):CD006614. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006614.pub4
39. Norman J, Shennan A, Jacobsson B, et al: FIGO good practice recommendations on the use of prenatal corticosteroids to improve outcomes and minimize harm in babies born preterm. Int J Gynecol Obstet 2021;155:26-30. doi: 10.1002/ijgo.13836
40. Regazzi FM, Silva LCG, Lúcio CF, et al: Morphometric and functional pulmonary changes of premature neonatal puppies after antenatal corticoid therapy. Theriogenology 2020;153:19-26. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2020.05.005
41. Regazzi FM, Silva LCG, Lúcio CF, et al: Influence of prenatal maternal corticosteroid therapy on clinical and metabolic features and pulmonary function of preterm newborn puppies. Theriogenology 2017;97:179-185. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2017.04.039
2. Concannon PW, Castracane VD, Temple M, et al: Endocrine control of ovarian function in dogs and other carnivores. Anim Reprod 2009;6:172-193.
3. Kowalewski MP: Regulation of corpus luteum function in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) and comparative aspects of luteal function the domestic cat (Felis catus). In: Meidan R: editor. The Life Cycle of the Corpus Luteum. New York City; Springer: 2017. p. 133-157. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-43238-0_8
4. Wildt D, Chakraborty P, Panko W, et al: Relationship of reproductive behavior, serum luteinizing hormone and time of ovulation in the bitch. Biol Reprod 1978;18:561-570. doi: 10.1095/biolreprod18.4.561
5. De Gier J, Kooistra HS, Djajadiningrat-Laanen SC, et al: Temporal relations between plasma concentrations of luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, estradiol-17β, progesterone, prolactin, and α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone during the follicular, ovulatory, and early luteal phase in the bitch. Theriogenology 2006;65:1346-1359. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2005.08.010
6. Reckers F, Klopfleisch R, Belik V, et al: Canine vaginal cytology: a revised definition of exfoliated vaginal cells. Front Vet Sci 2022;9:1-10. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.834031
7. Reynaud K, Fontbonne A, Marseloo N, et al: In vivo meiotic resumption, fertilization and early embryonic development in the bitch. Reproduction 2005;130:193-201. doi: 10.1530/rep.1.00500
8. Tsutsui T: Gamete physiology and timing of ovulation and fertilization in dogs. J Reprod Fertil 1989;39:269-725.
9. Rijsselaere T, England G, Freeman S, et al: Current knowledge on the transport and fate of spermatozoa in the reproductive tract of the bitch. Reprod Domest Anim 2014;49:2-7. doi: 10.1111/rda.12299
10. Kowalewski MP, Tavares Pereira M, Kazemian A: Canine conceptus-maternal communication during maintenance and termination of pregnancy, including the role of species-specific decidualization. Theriogenology 2020;150:329-338. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2020.01.082
11. Lopate C: Estimation of gestational age and assessment of canine fetal maturation using radiology and ultrasonography: a review. Theriogenology 2008;70:397-402. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2008.05.034
12. Hoffmann R. Höveler B, Nohr SHH: Investigations on hormonal changes around parturition in the dog and the occurrence of pregnancy-specific non conjugated oestrogens. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 1994;102:185-189. doi: 10.1055/s-0029-1211280
13. Nishiyama T, Tsumagari S, Ito M, et al: Immunohistochemical study of steroidogenic enzymes in the ovary and placenta during pregnancy in the dog. Anat Histol Embryol 1999;28:125-130. doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0264.1999.00170.x
14. Kooistra HS, Okkens AC: Secretion of prolactin and growth hormone in relation to ovarian activity in the dog. Reprod Domest Anim 2001;36:115-119. doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0531.2001.d01-42.x
15. Fusi J, Veronesi MC: Canine parturition: what is known about the hormonal setting? Domest Anim Endocrinol 2022;78:106687. doi: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2021.106687
16. Kowaleski MP, Beceriklisoy HB, Pfarrer C, et al: Canine placenta: a source of prepartal prostaglandins during normal and antiprogestin-induced parturition. Reproduction 2010;139:655-664. doi: 10.1530/REP-09-0140
17. Nowak M, Rehrauer H, Ay SS, et al: Gene expression profiling of the canine placenta during normal and antigestagen-induced luteolysis. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2019;282:113194. doi: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2019.05.019
18. Copley K: 26,000 whelpings-the high points and high risk successes. Clinical Theriogenology 2017;9:277-288.
19. Milani C, Rota A, Olsson U, et al: Serum concentration of mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex steroids in peripartum bitches. Domest Anim Endocrinol 2021;74:106558. doi: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2020.106558
20. Johnston S, Root Kustritz M, Olson P: Canine parturition – eutocia and dystocia. In: Canine and Feline Theriogenology. 1st edition, Philadelphia; Saunders: 2001. p. 105-126.
21. Concannon PW: Canine pregnancy: predicting parturition and timing events of gestation. Research Gate 2000; p. 4-8. Retrieved from chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj.https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Patrick-Concannon-2/publication/237260118_Canine_Pregnancy_Predicting_Parturition_and_Timing_Events_of_Gestation/links/00b4952f6456c8be7e000000/Canine-Pregnancy-Predicting-Parturition-and-Timing-Events-of-Gestation.pdf.
22. Eilts BE, Davidson AP, Hosgood G, et al: Factors affecting gestation duration in the bitch. Theriogenology 2005;64:242-51. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2004.11.007
23. Okkens AC, Hekerman TW, de Vogel JW, et al: Influence of litter size and breed on variation in length of gestation in the dog. Vet Q 1993;15:160-161. doi: 10.1080/01652176.1993.9694397
24. Lopate C: Ultrasonography for the evaluation of pregnancy in the female canine. Reprod Domest Anim 2023;58:144-162. doi: 10.1111/rda.14446
25. Hollinshead F, Hanlon D: Normal progesterone profiles during estrus in the bitch: a prospective analysis of 1420 estrous cycles. Theriogenology 2019;125:37-42. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2018.10.018
26. Wright P: Application of vaginal cytology and plasma progesterone determinations to the management of reproduction in the bitch. J Small Anim Pract 1990;31:335-340. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-5827.1990.tb00824.x
27. Conley AJ, Gonzales KL, Erb HN, et al: Progesterone analysis in canine breeding management. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2023;53:931-949. doi: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2023.05.007
28. Goodman M: Ovulation timing. Concepts and controversies. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2001;31:219-235. doi: 10.1016/S0195-5616(01)50201-6
29. Lopate C: Gestational aging and determination of parturition date in the bitch and queen using ultrasonography and radiography. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2018;48:617-638. doi: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2018.02.008
30. Hase M, Hori T, Kawakami E, et al: Plasma LH and progesterone levels before and after ovulation and observation of ovarian follicles by ultrasonographic diagnosis system in dogs. J Vet Med Sci 2000;62:243-248. doi: 10.1292/jvms.62.243
31. Bergeron LH, Nykamp SG, Brisson BA, et al: An evaluation of B-mode and color Doppler ultrasonography for detecting periovulatory events in the bitch. Theriogenology 2013;79:274-283. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2012.08.016
32. Tsuchida M, Komura N, Yoshihara T, et al: Ultrasonographic observation in combination with progesterone monitoring for detection of ovulation in Labrador Retrievers. Reprod Domest Anim 2022;57:149-156. doi: 10.1111/rda.14035
33. Socha P, Janowski T, Bancerz-Kisiel A: Ultrasonographic fetometry formulas of inner chorionic cavity diameter and biparietal diameter for medium-sized dogs can be used in giant breeds. Theriogenology 2015;84:779-783. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.05.012
34. Gil EMU, Garcia DAA, Giannico AT, et al: Early results on canine fetal kidney development: ultrasonographic evaluation and value in prediction of delivery time. Theriogenology 2018;107:180-187. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2017.11.015
35. Siena G, di Nardo F, Romagnoli S, et al: Relationship between days before parturition and fetal kidney length, cortical thickness, medullary thickness and their ratio in dogs. Theriogenology 2022;194:58-63. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2022.09.021
36. Siena G, Romagnoli S, Drigo M, et al: Ultrasonographic changes in fetal gastrointestinal motility during the last ten days before parturition in dogs. Front Vet Sci 2022;9:1–9. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1000975
37. Gil EMU, Garcia DAA, Froes TR: In utero development of the fetal intestine: sonographic evaluation and correlation with gestational age and fetal maturity in dogs. Theriogenology 2015;84:681-686. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.04.030
38. Sotiriadis A, Mcgoldrick E, Makrydimas G, et al: Antenatal corticosteroids prior to planned caesarean at term for improving neonatal outcomes (Review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2021; 12(12):CD006614. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006614.pub4
39. Norman J, Shennan A, Jacobsson B, et al: FIGO good practice recommendations on the use of prenatal corticosteroids to improve outcomes and minimize harm in babies born preterm. Int J Gynecol Obstet 2021;155:26-30. doi: 10.1002/ijgo.13836
40. Regazzi FM, Silva LCG, Lúcio CF, et al: Morphometric and functional pulmonary changes of premature neonatal puppies after antenatal corticoid therapy. Theriogenology 2020;153:19-26. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2020.05.005
41. Regazzi FM, Silva LCG, Lúcio CF, et al: Influence of prenatal maternal corticosteroid therapy on clinical and metabolic features and pulmonary function of preterm newborn puppies. Theriogenology 2017;97:179-185. doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2017.04.039
Published
2024-11-04
How to Cite
Razquin P., & Sones J. (2024). Pregnancy monitoring and parturition in dogs. Clinical Theriogenology, 16. https://doi.org/10.58292/CT.v16.10795
Issue
Section
Review Reports
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Authors retain copyright of their work, with first publication rights granted to Clinical Theriogenology. Read more about copyright and licensing here.
