Review Report
Margaret Root Kustritz,a Patricia Sertich,b Aime Johnson,c Scott Madilld
aDepartment of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, St. Paul, MN, USA, bDepartment of Clinical Studies – New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA, cDepartment of Clinical Sciences, Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn, AL, USA, dDepartment of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota College of Veterinary Medicine, St. Paul, MN, USA
Veterinary practitioners who had just completed their first postgraduate year of work were surveyed to determine what knowledge and skills in theriogenology were used in that first year with the goal of helping veterinary schools prioritize components of the model core curriculum in their curricular offerings. The survey was based on a core curriculum created by the American College of Theriogenologists. Forty-eight surveys were returned; response rate could not be calculated. The majority of participants were in small animal practice but a wide range of employment experiences was represented. The only component listed as very commonly used in all practice types was ‘reproductive anatomy in any species.’ Reproductive work in general was not managed by small animal practitioners, reflecting current caseload in most small animal primary care clinics in the United States, which focuses on sterilized small animal patients. Reproductive work was more common among large animal practitioners, particularly those in mixed and food animal practices. The core curriculum is comparative and in this study many of the components rated as being used very commonly required input from disciplines outside of theriogenology for training, including anesthesia, surgery, and medical imaging. It is important for those teaching theriogenology to be an active part of all conversations about curriculum at academic institutions and that the comparative nature of theriogenology be stressed to ensure all necessary components are being taught to prepare graduates for theriogenology work in practice.
Keywords: Curriculum, theriogenology, competencies
Citation line: Clinical Theriogenology 2023, 15, 9589, http://dx.doi.org/10.58292/CT.v15.9589
Copyright: © 2023 The Author(s). This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Published: 29 May 2023
CONTACT Margaret V. Root Kustritz rootk001@umn.edu
Competing interests and funding: None.
There is a growing interest in use of competencies to guide medical education. Competency frameworks for veterinary medical education have been created locally and as part of an international consortium.1,2 The American Association of Veterinary Medical Colleges endorses the competency-based veterinary education framework of 32 competencies divided into 9 domains.a The domains are clinical reasoning and decision-making, individual animal care and management, animal population care and management, public health, communication, collaboration, professionalism and professional identity, financial and practice management, and scholarship.
Competencies of this type are general and do not address what specific content and skills should be included for each discipline in veterinary medical training. Individual educational researchers and colleges and organized medicine cooperatives have created lists of knowledge and skills required of veterinary students at graduation.b,3,4 Often these are created with extensive input from practicing veterinarians.
The American College of Theriogenologists has developed a model core curriculum (Appendix) and completed a survey of veterinarians across the United States to determine what knowledge and which skills in theriogenology were most commonly used in all types of veterinary practice.5 The model core curriculum was the basis of this study that surveyed veterinary school graduates who had just completed a year of veterinary practice. The survey attempted to determine what knowledge and skills in theriogenology were used in that first year with the goal of helping veterinary schools prioritize components of the model core curriculum in their curricular offerings.
Graduates from the veterinary class of 2021 from Auburn University, University of Minnesota, and University of Pennsylvania were invited to complete a survey based on the model core curriculum. Surveys were anonymous. Graduates were asked from which school they had graduated and what kind of veterinary employment they had in their first year after graduation (May 2021–May 2022). For each component of the model core curriculum, participants were asked to identify how frequently they used that information or skill in their first year of practice with ratings of never, rarely (less than once a month), commonly (at least once a month), and very commonly (at least weekly). For basic science components, participants were asked to extrapolate how frequently they used that information as clinicians. For those who do reproductive work seasonally, they were asked to select the option that was most accurate during the breeding season. Descriptive data are presented, with no statistical analysis.
Forty-eight surveys were returned, with 40 from University of Minnesota, 6 from University of Pennsylvania, and 2 from Auburn University. The survey was offered to multiple schools for distribution and the authors do not know the complete population to which this may have been distributed so response rate cannot be calculated. The majority of participants were in small animal practice, but a wide range of employment experiences was represented (Table 1).
Frequency of use of information or skill by employment type is tabulated (Tables 2–9). Components are listed by category and from highest to lowest weighted score within that category.
| Very commonly used |
| Reproductive anatomy in any species |
| Commonly used |
| — |
| Rarely used |
| Reproductive endocrinology in any species |
| Reproductive biology in any species (folliculogenesis, spermatogenesis, fertilization, placentation, mammary gland development) |
| Histology of reproductive tissues in any species |
| *Small animal = Small animal practice, internship – small animal, internship – small animal in shelter medicine, small animal and mixed practice, small animal and exotics practice (n = 30). |
| Very commonly used |
| Small animal general anesthesia |
| Commonly used |
| Small animal sterilization – surgical |
| Small animal ovariohysterectomy/ovariectomy/hysterectomy |
| Small animal castration (descended or cryptorchid) |
| Small animal mammary neoplasia |
| Small animal estrous cycle |
| Rarely used |
| Small animal pregnancy diagnosis/pregnancy management |
| Small animal dystocia management/obstetrics |
| Small animal infectious diseases of the reproductive tract |
| Small animal breeding management |
| Small animal mastitis |
| Small animal female neoplasia of the reproductive tract |
| Small animal male neoplasia of the reproductive tract |
| Small animal neonatal resuscitation |
| Small animal cesarean section |
| Small animal periparturient disorders (metritis, hypocalcemia/eclampsia, subinvolution of placental sites) |
| Small animal pregnancy termination |
| Small animal male infectious diseases of the reproductive tract |
| Small animal testing for heritable disorders, breeding planning |
| *Small animal = Small animal practice, internship – small animal, internship – small animal in shelter medicine, small animal and mixed practice, small animal and exotics practice (n = 30). |
| Very commonly used |
| Reproductive anatomy in any species |
| Reproductive endocrinology in any species |
| Reproductive biology in any species (folliculogenesis, spermatogenesis, fertilization, placentation, mammary gland development) |
| Commonly used |
| Histology of reproductive tissues in any species |
| **Equine = equine practice, internship – equine (n = 5). |
| Very commonly used |
| Equine standing anesthesia |
| Equine breeding management |
| Equine manipulation of estrus (pharmacologic, lighting, etc.) |
| Equine pregnancy diagnosis/pregnancy management |
| Equine artificial insemination/embryo transfer |
| Equine transrectal palpation |
| Equine ultrasound |
| Equine passage of pipette/biopsy instrument/insemination pipette into uterus |
| Commonly used |
| Equine estrous cycle |
| Equine causes of abnormal cycling including anestrus |
| Equine periparturient disorders (metritis, retained fetal membranes) |
| Equine castration (descended or cryptorchid) |
| Equine Caslick’s surgery |
| Equine endometritis |
| Equine breeding soundness examination/semen collection and evaluation |
| Equine recumbent (general) anesthesia |
| Rarely used |
| Equine abortion |
| Equine female infectious diseases of the reproductive tract |
| Equine dystocia management/obstetrics |
| Equine herd health/performance goals/economic /record-keeping |
| Equine mastitis |
| Equine male infertility |
| Equine neoplasia of the male reproductive tract |
| Equine perineal reconstruction |
| Equine male infectious diseases of the reproductive tract |
| Equine testing for heritable disorders, creating a breeding plan |
| Equine neoplasia of the female reproductive tract |
| Equine neonatal resuscitation |
| Equine cesarean section |
| Equine ovariectomy |
| **Equine = Equine practice, internship – equine (n = 5). |
| Very commonly used |
| Bovine estrous cycle |
| Bovine breeding management |
| Bovine pharmacologic manipulation of estrus |
| Bovine causes of abnormal cycling including anestrus |
| Bovine pregnancy diagnosis/pregnancy management |
| Bovine dystocia management (obstetrics, fetotomy) |
| Bovine periparturient disorders (hydrops, vaginal/uterine prolapse, metritis, retained fetal membranes, endometritis, hypocalcemia) |
| Bovine female infectious diseases of the reproductive tract |
| Bovine mastitis |
| Bovine male infertility |
| Bovine male infectious diseases of the reproductive tract |
| Bovine herd health / performance goals / economics / record-keeping |
| Bovine transrectal palpation |
| Bovine ultrasonography |
| Bovine breeding soundness examination / Semen collection and evaluation |
| Bovine standing anesthesia |
| Bovine artificial insemination / embryo transfer |
| Bovine testing for heritable disease / breeding planning |
| Bovine neonatal resuscitation |
| Small ruminant parturition / obstetrics |
| Commonly used |
| Bovine teat surgery |
| Bovine castration |
| Small ruminant breeding management |
| Small ruminant pregnancy diagnosis / pregnancy management |
| Small ruminant abortion |
| Bovine neoplasia of the female reproductive tract |
| Bovine neoplasia of the male reproductive tract |
| Bovine cesarean section |
| Small ruminant estrous cycle |
| Small ruminant breeding soundness examination / Semen collection and evaluation |
| Rarely used |
| Bovine passage of pipette / biopsy instrument / insemination pipette into uterus |
| Bovine Caslick’s surgery |
| Bovine ovariectomy |
| †Food animal = Food animal practice (n = 2). |
| Very commonly used |
| Reproductive anatomy in any species |
| Commonly used |
| Reproductive endocrinology in any species |
| Reproductive biology in any species (folliculogenesis, spermatogenesis, fertilization, placentation, mammary gland development) |
| Rarely used |
| Histology of reproductive tissues in any species |
| ††Mixed animal = Mixed animal practice with common domestic species; small animal, equine and food animal practice; small animal, equine, food animal and exotics practice; small animal and food animal practice; equine and food animal practice; internship – large animal; residency (n = 11). |
| Very commonly used |
| --- |
| Commonly used |
| Bovine estrous cycle |
| Bovine pharmacologic manipulation of estrus |
| Bovine pregnancy diagnosis/pregnancy management |
| Bovine transrectal palpation |
| Bovine breeding management |
| Bovine dystocia management (obstetrics, fetotomy) |
| Bovine periparturient disorders (hydrops, vaginal/uterine eversions, metritis, retained fetal membranes, endometritis, hypocalcemia) |
| Bovine castration |
| Small animal general anesthesia |
| Small animal ovariohysterectomy/ovariectomy/hysterectomy |
| Small animal castration (descended or cryptorchid) |
| Bovine causes of abnormal cycling including anestrus |
| Bovine ultrasonography |
| Bovine standing anesthesia |
| Small animal sterilization – surgical |
| Small ruminant parturition/obstetrics |
| Rarely used |
| Bovine female infectious diseases of the reproductive tract |
| Bovine mastitis |
| Small animal estrous cycle |
| Small animal mammary neoplasia |
| Bovine breeding soundness examination/semen collection and evaluation |
| Bovine neonatal resuscitation |
| Equine estrous cycle |
| Equine standing anesthesia |
| Small ruminant pregnancy diagnosis/pregnancy management |
| Bovine male infertility |
| Bovine cesarean section |
| Equine periparturient disorders (metritis, retained fetal membranes) |
| Small animal pregnancy diagnosis /pregnancy management |
| Bovine herd health/performance goals/economics/record-keeping |
| Bovine artificial insemination/embryo transfer |
| Equine pregnancy diagnosis/pregnancy management |
| Small animal periparturient disorders (metritis, hypocalcemia/eclampsia, subinvolution of placental sites) |
| Small ruminant abortion |
| Bovine passage of pipette/biopsy instrument/insemination pipette into uterus |
| Equine transrectal palpation |
| Equine ultrasound |
| Equine castration (descended or cryptorchid) |
| Small animal dystocia management/obstetrics |
| Small animal male neoplasia of the reproductive tract |
| Small animal cesarean section |
| Small ruminant estrous cycle |
| Bovine male infectious diseases of the reproductive tract |
| Equine breeding management |
| Equine manipulation of estrus (pharmacologic, lighting, and others) |
| Small animal infectious diseases of the reproductive tract |
| Small animal mastitis |
| Small animal female neoplasia of the reproductive tract |
| Small animal neonatal resuscitation |
| Small ruminant breeding management |
| Equine artificial insemination/embryo transfer |
| Small animal breeding management |
| Small ruminant breeding soundness examination/semen collection and evaluation |
| Bovine testing for heritable disease / breeding planning |
| Bovine neoplasia of the female reproductive tract |
| Equine causes of abnormal cycling including anestrus |
| Equine endometritis |
| Small animal pregnancy termination |
| Small animal testing for heritable disorders, breeding planning |
| Equine dystocia management/obstetrics |
| Equine female infectious diseases of the reproductive tract |
| Equine passage of pipette/biopsy instrument/insemination pipette into uterus |
| Equine recumbent (general) anesthesia |
| Porcine parturition/obstetrics |
| Bovine neoplasia of the male reproductive tract |
| Bovine teat surgery |
| Bovine Caslick’s surgery |
| Equine neoplasia of the female reproductive tract |
| Equine breeding soundness examination / Semen collection and evaluation |
| Equine neonatal resuscitation |
| Equine Caslick’s surgery |
| Small animal spontaneous abortion |
| Porcine estrous cycle |
| Porcine infectious causes of reproductive loss |
| ††Mixed animal = Mixed animal practice with common domestic species; small animal, equine and food animal practice; small animal, equine, food animal and exotics practice; small animal and food animal practice; equine and food animal practice; Internship – large animal; residency (n = 11). |
The only component listed as very commonly used in all practice types was ‘reproductive anatomy in any species.’ Seven components were listed as never used in any practice type; these were ‘small animal male infertility’, ‘small animal artificial insemination’, small animal contraception – pharmacologic’, ‘small animal breeding soundness examination/semen collection and evaluation’, ‘porcine breeding management’, ‘porcine breeding soundness examination/semen collection and evaluation’, and ‘porcine artificial insemination’. Two or more participants suggested that more should be taught about ovariohysterectomy and castration in rabbits, reproductive issues including dystocia in small mammals and reptiles, egg binding in birds (including commercial poultry) and reptiles, and small animal ultrasonography. Several small animal participants spontaneously noted that dystocia was the most common clinical presentation managed.
Variation in use of knowledge and skills by employment type was similar to other studies. A study describing veterinarians’ perceptions of skills, knowledge, and attributes of new veterinary graduates suggested that large animal theriogenology was not considered valuable by small animal practitioners whereas canine and large animal theriogenology were considered valuable by large animal practitioners.6 This is likely because only a few small animal practitioners do any large animal work whereas many large animal practitioners do some small animal work. Within small animal, only 1 participant noted that they worked in a practice that worked with dog breeders so the scoring in this study was reflective of the average small animal practitioner, with a much greater focus on sterilization and treatment of disease of spayed female dogs than on breeding work. That large animal practice was much more likely to have a significant focus on breeding work (only in some species) was reflected in the ratings provided by mixed animal and food animal practitioners. Ratings for large animal topics may reflect ability of nonveterinarians to perform some of this work.
A survey of over 1,000 veterinarians representing training at all but 3 schools in North America identified basic procedures as most valuable in training (e.g. transrectal palpation in cows and mares and interpretation of vaginal cytology specimens in dogs).5 In that survey, dystocia management was rated as highly important in all species and a paucity of training in small animal and in exotics was noted. The latter still appears to be true.
Among basic science topics, reproductive anatomy in any species was identified as very commonly used regardless of type of employment in the first year. Reproductive biology and reproductive endocrinology were commonly or very commonly used in all large animal employment and were rarely used in small animal; this again reflects lack of regular breeding work in most small animal practice situations. Knowledge of reproductive tissue histology was less common in all employment types. The core curriculum on which this was based (Appendix) clearly demonstrated the comparative nature of theriogenology teaching. In a survey of dairy veterinarians, reproductive knowledge and skills for individual animals in theriogenology, surgery, and nutrition were noted as valuable.7 In this study, many of the components rated as being used very commonly required input from disciplines outside of theriogenology for training, including anesthesia, surgery, and medical imaging. It is important for those teaching theriogenology to be an active part of all conversations about curriculum at academic institutions and that the comparative nature of theriogenology is stressed to ensure all necessary components are taught to prepare graduates for theriogenology work in practice.
A recent publication reported that 95% of students surveyed felt that their clinical development was negatively impacted due to restrictions imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic.8 The students in the current study were in a cohort that completed their training under those restrictions and that may have altered results of this survey. The other obvious limitation of this study was the relative lack of response from dedicated large animal practitioners. Further research must be conducted to fully understand the impacts of tracking on capabilities of new graduates and to provide a more accurate list of required knowledge and skills in the first year by practice type.
Competency frameworks include many aspects of veterinary medicine outside of clinical knowledge and skills, including teamwork, communications, and lifelong learning (footnote a). Recent graduates in a study noted that a focus purely on veterinary knowledge was less important in practice than were nontechnical attributes, when comparing their employment to their clinical training.9 Graduates must be employable at graduation and must also have skills that will permit them to be successful and satisfied as veterinary practitioners.10 Data from this study can be used to guide curriculum development, with incorporation of work from other disciplines and nontechnical skill development to help create new graduates who can perform all the aspects of theriogenology required in their chosen employment.
Dr. Root Kustritz conceptualized the study, created the survey and sent it out to graduates of the University of Minnesota, drafted the paper, and completed revisions requested by the reviewer.
Drs. Sertich and Johnson sent out the survey to graduates at their respective schools. Drs. Sertich, Johnson, and Madill reviewed the draft and provided input for improvement of the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript and have agreed to the submission.
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Theriogenology core curriculum for nontracking or mixed animal track students
Suggested prerequisites to veterinary school
- Medical terminology
- Endocrinology
- Genetics
Topics in veterinary curriculum
Basic sciences
Anatomy
Male and female, representative large and small animal species
Histology
Gonads
Uterus
Uterine tubes
Mammary tissue
Endocrinology
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Gonads
Uterus
Placenta
Thyroid
Adrenal
Embryology and placentation
Reproductive biology
Sex determination and differentiation
Estrous cycle, representative species (cow?)
Folliculogenesis/oogenesis/ovulation/luteinization
Seasonal, environmental, nutritional effects
Puberty
Pharmacologic manipulation of estrus
Introduction to advanced reproductive technologies (e.g. semen cryopreservation, cloning, and embryo manipulation)
Spermatogenesis/sperm maturation
Emission/ejaculation
Fertilization/embryo movement /maternal recognition of pregnancy
pregnancy/parturition
Artificial insemination
Contraception – surgical, pharmacological, immunological
Mammary gland development/lactation/milk biology
Pharmacology
Use of reproductive hormones and analogues
Use of antibiotics/withdrawal times
Behavior
Clinical sciences
Bovine
Female
Estrous cycle/breeding management
Pharmacologic manipulation of estrus
Anestrus
Cyclical aberrations
Pregnancy diagnosis/pregnancy management
Dystocia management/obstetrics, fetotomy
Abortion
Periparturient disorders – hydrops, vaginal/uterine eversion, metritis, retained fetal membranes, endometritis
Infectious diseases/disorders of the reproductive tract
Mastitis
Male
Infertility, male
Infectious diseases/disorders of the reproductive tract
General
Herd health/reproductive performance goals/economics/record keeping
Artificial insemination, embryo transfer
Testing for heritable disorders/creation of breeding plans to minimize genetic disorders
Neoplasia of the reproductive tract
Techniques
History taking/physical examination/creation of a diagnostic and treatment scheme
Transrectal reproductive examination
Ultrasonography
Breeding soundness examination/semen collection and evaluation
Passage of pipette/biopsy instrument/insemination pipette into uterus
Neonatal resuscitation
Anesthesia
Surgery
Cesarean surgery
Teat surgery
Caslick’s surgery
Ovariectomy
Castration
Equine
Female
Estrous cycle/breeding management
Manipulation of estrus
Anestrus
Cyclical aberrations
Pregnancy diagnosis/pregnancy management
Dystocia management/obstetrics
Abortion
Periparturient disorders – metritis, retained fetal membranes
Endometritis
Infectious diseases/disorders of the reproductive tract
Mastitis
Male
Infertility, male
Infectious diseases/disorders of the reproductive tract
General
Herd health/reproductive performance goals/economics/record keeping
Artificial insemination, embryo transfer
Testing for heritable disorders/creation of breeding plans to minimize genetic disorders
Neoplasia of the reproductive tract
Techniques
History taking/physical examination/creation of a diagnostic and treatment scheme
Transrectal reproductive examination
Ultrasonography
Breeding soundness examination/semen collection and evaluation
Passage of pipette/biopsy instrument/insemination pipette into uterus
Neonatal resuscitation
Anesthesia
Surgery
Cesarean surgery
Castration (descended and cryptorchid)
Caslick’s surgery
Perineal reconstruction
Ovariectomy
Small animal
Female
Estrous cycle/breeding management
Pregnancy diagnosis/pregnancy management
Dystocia management/obstetrics
Abortion
Periparturient disorders – metritis, SIPS, eclampsia
Infectious diseases/disorders of the reproductive tract
Mastitis
Mammary neoplasia
Male
Infertility, male
Infectious diseases/disorders of the reproductive tract
General
Artificial insemination
Contraception
Testing for heritable disorders/creation of breeding plans to minimize genetic disorders
Neoplasia of the reproductive tract
Techniques
History taking/physical examination/creation of a diagnostic and treatment scheme
Breeding soundness examination/semen collection and evaluation
Neonatal resuscitation
Anesthesia
Surgery
Cesarean section
Ovariohysterectomy/ovariectomy
Castration (descended and cryptorchid)
Porcine
Estrous cycle/breeding management
Parturition/obstetrics
Infectious causes of reproductive loss
Breeding soundness examination, male
Artificial insemination
Ovine/caprine
Estrous cycle/breeding management
Pregnancy diagnosis/pregnancy management
Abortion
Parturition/obstetrics
Breeding soundness examination, male